Reviewing Interstitial Cystitis Models and Treatments: A Focus on the Urothelium

Ferro, Federico

doi:10.5812/rijm.64551

Reviewing Interstitial Cystitis Models and Treatments: A Focus on the Urothelium

Author

Federico Ferro

Curam, Centre for Research in Medical Devices, National University of Ireland Galway, NUIGalway, Biosciences Research Building, 118 Corrib Village, Newcastle, Galway, Ireland

10.5812/rijm.64551

Abstract

Context: Interstitial cystitis is a multifactorial chronic and debilitating disease which is commonly associated with pain localized in the bladder region, increased urinary frequency, urgency and nocturia. Due to the high prevalence of pain in the population affected more recently the condition is often referred to as interstitial cystitis / bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS).

Evidence Acquisition: Although IC presents with many different symptoms, researchers have formulated three different theories, which are not mutually exclusive, to explain IC pathology: the first is related to the alteration of the proteoglycan and protein junction composition, structure and presence in the urothelium. The second is an immune induced IC resulting from an increased number of activated mast cells in the bladder internal layers, such as detrusor muscle (DM), and mucosa/submucosa. The third type, which is closely related to the second one, is due to a sensory nerve sensitization as an effect of neurotrophic factors molecule release.

Results: Previous classification has been mirrored in the development of various in vitro and in vivo disease models created to mimic IC, as well as in the available therapies used to treat the condition to date. Conclusions: This review will summarize the most recent advances in the field, related to the different causative factors contributing to the development of the condition, the in vivo models used as well as the evidence they provide in advancing our knowledge and their limitations. The focus will be on works reporting on IC in the domain related to alterations in proteoglycans and cellular junction, specifically their composition, structure and appearance in the urothelium, and also discuss present and future therapies.

Conclusions: This review will summarize the most recent advances in the field, related to the different causative factors contributing to the development of the condition, the in vivo models used as well as the evidence they provide in advancing our knowledge and their limitations. The focus will be on works reporting on IC in the domain related to alterations in proteoglycans and cellular junction, specifically their composition, structure and appearance in the urothelium, and also discuss present and future therapies.

Keywords

Open Access Policy: This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References

1.Clauw DJ, Schmidt M, Radulovic D, Singer A, Katz P, Bresette J. The relationship between fibromyalgia and interstitial cystitis. J Psychiatr Res. 1997;31(1):125-31. [PubMed: 9201654]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3956(96)00051-9 PMid:9201654

2. Oravisto KJ. Epidemiology of interstitial cystitis. Ann Chir Gynaecol Fenn. 1975;64(2):75-7. [PubMed: 1137336].

3. Lifford KL, Curhan GC. Prevalence of painful bladder syndrome in older women. Urology. 2009;73(3):494-8. [PubMed: 19118882]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2008.01.053 PMid:19118882

4. Koziol JA. Epidemiology of interstitial cystitis. Urol Clin North Am. 1994;21(1):7-20. [PubMed: 8284848]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-0143(21)00587-5 PMid:8284848

5. Gillenwater JY, Wein AJ. Summary of the National Institute of Arthritis, Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases Workshop on Interstitial Cystitis, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, August 28- 29, 1987. J Urol. 1988;140(1):203-6. [PubMed: 3379688]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(17)41529-1 PMid:3379688

6. Hanno PM, Landis JR, Matthews-Cook Y, Kusek J, Nyberg LJ. The diagnosis of interstitial cystitis revisited: lessons learned from the National Institutes of Health Interstitial Cystitis Database study. J Urol. 1999;161(2):553-7. [PubMed: 9915447]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(01)61948-7 PMid:9915447

7. Peeker R, Fall M. Treatment guidelines for classic and non-ulcer interstitial cystitis. Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct. 2000;11(1):23-32. [PubMed: 10738931]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001920050006 PMid:10738931

8. Fall M, Logadottir Y, Peeker R. Interstitial cystitis is bladder pain syndrome with Hunner's lesion. Int J Urol. 2014;21 Suppl 1:79-82. [PubMed: 24807507]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.12325 PMid:24807507

9. Hand JR. Interstitial cystitis; report of 223 cases (204 women and 19 men). J Urol. 1949;61(2):291-310. [PubMed: 18111850]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(17)69067-0 PMid:18111850

10. Chennamsetty A, Ehlert MJ, Peters KM, Killinger KA. Advances in diagnosis and treatment of interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2015;17(1):454. [PubMed: 25416849]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-014-0454-5 PMid:25416849

11. Chelimsky G, Heller E, Buffington CA, Rackley R, Zhang D, Chelimsky T. Co-morbidities of interstitial cystitis. Front Neurosci. 2012;6:114. [PubMed: 22907988]. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2012.00114 PMid:22907988 PMCid:PMC3415690

12. Griffiths D, Hofner K, van Mastrigt R, Rollema HJ, Spangberg A, Gleason D. Standardization of terminology of lower urinary tract function: pressure-flow studies of voiding, urethral resistance, and urethral obstruction. International Continence Society Subcommittee on Standardization of Terminology of Pressure-Flow Studies. Neurourol Urodyn. 1997;16(1):1-18. [PubMed: 9021786]. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6777(1997)16:1<1::AID-NAU1>3.0.CO;2-I

13. Birder L, Andersson KE. Urothelial signaling. Physiol Rev. 2013;93(2):653-80. [PubMed: 23589830]. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00030.2012 PMid:23589830 PMCid:PMC3768101

14. Apodaca G. The uroepithelium: not just a passive barrier. Traffic. 2004;5(3):117-28. [PubMed: 15086788]. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1600-0854.2003.00156.x PMid:15086788

15. Sun TT. Altered phenotype of cultured urothelial and other stratified epithelial cells: implications for wound healing. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2006;291(1):F9-21. [PubMed: 16609152]. 12 Razavi Int J Med. 2017; 5(4):e64551. Federico F https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00035.2006 PMid:16609152

16. Hicks RM. The mammalian urinary bladder: an accommodating organ. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 1975;50(2):215-46. [PubMed: 1100129]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1975.tb01057.x PMid:1100129

17. Hurst RE, Roy JB, Min KW, Veltri RW, Marley G, Patton K, et al. A deficit of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans on the bladder uroepithelium in interstitial cystitis. Urology. 1996;48(5):817-21. [PubMed: 8911536]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(96)00322-6 PMid:8911536

18. Theoharides TC, Kempuraj D, Sant GR. Mast cell involvement in interstitial cystitis: a review of human and experimental evidence. Urology. 2001;57(6 Suppl 1):47-55. [PubMed: 11378050]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(01)01129-3 PMid:11378050

19. Kreft ME, Romih R, Kreft M, Jezernik K. Endocytotic activity of bladder superficial urothelial cells is inversely related to their differentiation stage. Differentiation. 2009;77(1):48-59. [PubMed: 19281764]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diff.2008.09.011 PMid:19281764

20. Cox PJ. Cyclophosphamide cystitis-identification of acrolein as the causative agent. Biochem Pharmacol. 1979;28(13):2045-9. [PubMed: 475846]. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-2952(79)90222-3 PMid:475846

21. Cox PJ, Abel G. Cyclophosphamide cystitis. Studies aimed at its minimization. Biochem Pharmacol. 1979;28(24):3499-502. [PubMed: 231445]. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-2952(79)90390-3 PMid:231445

22. Batista CK, Brito GA, Souza ML, Leitao BT, Cunha FQ, Ribeiro RA. A model of hemorrhagic cystitis induced with acrolein in mice. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2006;39(11):1475-81. [PubMed: 17146560]. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2006005000024 PMid:17146560

23. Tzan CJ, Berg J, Lewis SA. Effect of protamine sulfate on the permeability properties of the mammalian urinary bladder. J Membr Biol. 1993;133(3):227-42. [PubMed: 8331646]. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00232022 PMid:8331646

24. Lavelle J, Meyers S, Ramage R, Bastacky S, Doty D, Apodaca G, et al. Bladder permeability barrier: recovery from selective injury of surface epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002;283(2):F242-53. Shimizu I, Kawashima K, Hosoki K. Urodynamics in acetone-induced cystitis of anesthetized rats. Neurourol Urodyn. 1999;18(2):115-27. [PubMed: 10081951]. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.00307.2001 PMid:12110507

25. Keay S, Leitzell S, Ochrzcin A, Clements G, Zhan M, Johnson D. Amouse model for interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome based on APF inhibition of bladder epithelial repair: a pilot study. BMC Urol. 2012;12:17. [PubMed: 22682521]. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2490-12-17 PMid:22682521 PMCid:PMC3459789

26. Lv YS, Yao YS, Rong L, Lin ME, Deng BH, Xie Y, et al. Intravesical hyaluronidase causes chronic cystitis in a rat model: a potential model of bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis. Int J Urol. 2014;21(6):601-7. [PubMed: 24286489]. https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.12358 PMid:24286489

27. Oottamasathien S, Jia W, McCoard L, Slack S, Zhang J, Skardal A, et al. A murine model of inflammatory bladder disease: cathelicidin peptide induced bladder inflammation and treatment with sulfated polysaccharides. J Urol. 2011;186(4 Suppl):1684-92. [PubMed: 21855919]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2011.03.099 PMid:21855919 PMCid:PMC3887035

28. Elbadawi A. Interstitial cystitis: a critique of current concepts with a new proposal for pathologic diagnosis and pathogenesis. Urology. 1997;49(5A Suppl):14-40. [PubMed: 9145999]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(99)80329-X PMid:9145999

29. Galli SJ. New concepts about the mast cell. N Engl J Med. 1993;328(4):257-65. [PubMed: 8418407]. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199301283280408 PMid:8418407

30. Bullock AD, Becich MJ, Klutke CG, Ratliff TL. Experimental autoimmune cystitis: a potential murine model for ulcerative interstitial cystitis. J Urol. 1992;148(6):1951-6. [PubMed: 1433651]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(17)37091-X PMid:1433651

31. Lin YH, Liu G, Kavran M, Altuntas CZ, Gasbarro G, Tuohy VK, et al. Lower urinary tract phenotype of experimental autoimmune cystitis in mouse: a potential animal model for interstitial cystitis. BJU Int. 2008;102(11):1724-30. [PubMed: 18710451]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07891.x PMid:18710451

32. Luber-Narod J, Austin-Ritchie T, Banner B, Hollins C3, Maramag C, Price H, et al. Experimental autoimmune cystitis in the Lewis rat: a potential animal model for interstitial cystitis. Urol Res. 1996;24(6):367- 73. [PubMed: 9008331]. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00389795 PMid:9008331

33. Ratliff TL, Klutke CG, Hofmeister M, He F, Russell JH, Becich MJ. Role of the immune response in interstitial cystitis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1995;74(3):209-16. [PubMed: 7859410]. https://doi.org/10.1006/clin.1995.1031 PMid:7859410

34. Altuntas CZ, Daneshgari F, Sakalar C, Goksoy E, Gulen MF, Kavran M, et al. Autoimmunity to uroplakin II causes cystitis in mice: a novel model of interstitial cystitis. Eur Urol. 2012;61(1):193-200.. [PubMed: 21719190]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2011.06.028 PMid:21719190 PMCid:PMC3226908

35. Lavelle JP, Apodaca G, Meyers SA, Ruiz WG, Zeidel ML. Disruption of guinea pig urinary bladder permeability barrier in noninfectious cystitis. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(1 Pt 2):F205-14. [PubMed: 9458841]. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1998.274.1.F205 PMid:9458841

36. Ercan F, San T, Cavdar S. The effects of cold-restraint stress on urinary bladder wall compared with interstitial cystitis morphology. Urol Res. 1999;27(6):454-61. [PubMed: 10651134]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002400050135 PMid:10651134

37. Lai H, Gereau R, Luo Y, O'Donnell M, Rudick CN, Pontari M, et al. Animal Models of Urologic Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndromes: Findings From the Multidisciplinary Approach to the Study of Chronic Pelvic Pain Research Network. Urology. 2015;85(6):1454-65. [PubMed: 26099889]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2015.03.007 PMid:26099889 PMCid:PMC4479414

38. Cruz F. The future of pharmacologic treatment for bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis: lessons from a meta-analysis. Eur Urol. 2012;61(1):54-5. [PubMed: 21975250] discussion 56-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2011.09.015 PMid:21975250

39. Nazif O, Teichman JM, Gebhart GF. Neural upregulation in interstitial cystitis. Urology. 2007;69(4 Suppl):24-33. [PubMed: 17462476]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2006.08.1108 PMid:17462476

40. Spanos C, el-Mansoury M, Letourneau R, Minogiannis P, Greenwood J, Siri P, et al. Carbachol-induced bladder mast cell activation: augmentation by estradiol and implications for interstitial cystitis. Urology. 1996;48(5):809-16. [PubMed: 8911535]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(96)00239-7 PMid:8911535

41. Jerde TJ, Bjorling DE, Steinberg H, Warner T, Saban R. Determination of mouse bladder inflammatory response to E. coli lipopolysaccharide. Urol Res. 2000;28(4):269-73. [PubMed: 11011967]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002400000114 PMid:11011967

42. Jasmin L, Janni G, Manz HJ, Rabkin SD. Activation of CNS circuits producing a neurogenic cystitis: evidence for centrally induced peripheral inflammation. J Neurosci. 1998;18(23):10016-29. [PubMed: 9822756]. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-23-10016.1998 PMid:9822756 PMCid:PMC6793287

43. Rudick CN, Schaeffer AJ, Klumpp DJ. Pharmacologic attenuation of pelvic pain in a murine model of interstitial cystitis. BMC Urol. 2009;9:16. [PubMed: 19909543]. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2490-9-16 PMid:19909543 PMCid:PMC2781023

44. Pontari MA. Seeking A Rational Approach to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Interstitial Cystitis. Medscape Womens Health. 1996;1(5):2. [PubMed: 9746627].

45. Warren JW. Bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis as a functional somatic syndrome. J Psychosom Res. 2014;77(6):510-5. [PubMed: 25455811]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2014.10.003 PMid:25455811

46. Persu C, Cauni V, Gutue S, Blaj I, Jinga V, Geavlete P. From interstitial cystitis to chronic pelvic pain. J Med Life. 2010;3(2):167-74. [PubMed: 20968203].

47. Theoharides TC, Pang X, Letourneau R, Sant GR. Interstitial cystitis: a neuroimmunoendocrine disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998;840:619-34. [PubMed: 9629289]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09601.x PMid:9629289

48. Soler R, Bruschini H, Truzzi JC, Martins JR, Camara NO, Alves MT, et al. Urinary glycosaminoglycans excretion and the effect of dimethyl sulfoxide in an experimental model of non-bacterial cystitis. Int Braz J Urol. 2008;34(4):503-11. [PubMed: 18778502] discussion 511. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-55382008000400013 PMid:18778502

49. Santos NC, Figueira-Coelho J, Martins-Silva J, Saldanha C. Multidisciplinary utilization of dimethyl sulfoxide: pharmacological, cellular, and molecular aspects. Biochem Pharmacol. 2003;65(7):1035-41. [PubMed: 12663039]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-2952(03)00002-9 PMid:12663039

50. Smith KJ, Chess-Williams R, McDermott C. Luminal DMSO: effects on detrusor and urothelial/lamina propria function. Biomed Res Int. Razavi Int J Med. 2017

5(4):e64551. 13 Federico F 2014;2014:347616. [PubMed: 24949435].

51. Tomoe H. In what type of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome is DMSO intravesical instillation therapy effective? Transl Androl Urol. 2015;4(6):600-4. [PubMed: 26816859].

52. Parsons CL, Koziol JA, Proctor JG, Zupkas P, Argade S. Heparin and alkalinized lidocaine versus alkalinized lidocaine for treatment of interstitial cystitis symptoms. Can J Urol. 2015;22(2):7739-44. [PubMed: 25891339].

53. Parsons CL, Forrest J, Nickel JC, Evans R, Lloyd LK, Barkin J, et al. Effect of pentosan polysulfate therapy on intravesical potassium sensitivity. Urology. 2002;59(3):329-33. [PubMed: 11880064]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(01)01586-2 PMid:11880064

54. Kalota SJ, Stein PC, Parsons CL. Prevention of acrolein-induced bladder injury by pentosanpolysulfate. J Urol. 1992;148(1):163-6. [PubMed: 1377288]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(17)36545-X PMid:1377288

55. Chiang G, Patra P, Letourneau R, Jeudy S, Boucher W, Green M, et al. Pentosanpolysulfate inhibits mast cell histamine secretion and intracellular calcium ion levels: an alternative explanation of its beneficial effect in interstitial cystitis. J Urol. 2000;164(6):2119-25. [PubMed: 11061939]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(05)66981-9 PMid:11061939

56. Kelly JD, Young MR, Johnston SR, Keane PF. Clinical response to an oral prostaglandin analogue in patients with interstitial cystitis. Eur Urol. 1998;34(1):53-6. [PubMed: 9676414]. https://doi.org/10.1159/000019679 PMid:9676414

57. Kuschert GS, Coulin F, Power CA, Proudfoot AE, Hubbard RE, Hoogewerf AJ, et al. Glycosaminoglycans interact selectively with chemokines and modulate receptor binding and cellular responses. Biochemistry. 1999;38(39):12959-68. [PubMed: 10504268]. https://doi.org/10.1021/bi990711d PMid:10504268

58. Stern R. Hyaluronan catabolism: a new metabolic pathway. Eur J Cell Biol. 2004;83(7):317-25. [PubMed: 15503855]. https://doi.org/10.1078/0171-9335-00392 PMid:15503855

59. Sinanoglu O, Dogan Ekici I, Ekici S. Comparison of intravesical application of chondroitin sulphate and colchicine in rat protamine/lipopolysaccharide induced cystitis model. Urol J. 2014;11(1):1296-300. [PubMed: 24595940].

60. Eggli PS, Graber W. Cytochemical localization of hyaluronan in rat and human skin mast cell granules. J Invest Dermatol. 1993;100(2):121- 5. [PubMed: 8429234]. https://doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12462777 PMid:8429234

61. Fiander N. Painful bladder syndrome and interstitial cystitis: treatment options. Br J Nurs. 2013;22(9):S26. [PubMed: 23752572] S28-33.

62. Toole BP. Hyaluronan and its binding proteins, the hyaladherins. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1990;2(5):839-44. [PubMed: 1707285]. https://doi.org/10.1016/0955-0674(90)90081-O PMid:1707285

63. Shao Y, Lu GL, Shen ZJ, He HC. Reduction of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 may play a role in anti-inflammatory effect of hyaluronic acid in a rat model of severe non-bacterial cystitis. World J Urol. 2013;31(3):535-40. [PubMed: 22358112]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-012-0839-8 PMid:22358112

64. Arance I, Ramon de Fata F, Angulo JC, Gonzalez-Enguita C, Errando C, Cozar JM, et al. [Available evidence about efficacy of different restoring agents of glycosaminoglycans for intravesical use in interstitial cystitis]. Actas Urol Esp. 2013;37(2):92-9. [PubMed: 23260184]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acuroe.2013.05.001

65. Negrete HO, Lavelle JP, Berg J, Lewis SA, Zeidel ML. Permeability properties of the intact mammalian bladder epithelium. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(4 Pt 2):F886-94. [PubMed: 8898019]. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajprenal.1996.271.4.F886 PMid:8898019

66. Kaufman J, Tyagi V, Anthony M, Chancellor MB, Tyagi P. State of the art in intravesical therapy for lower urinary tract symptoms. Rev Urol. 2010;12(4):e181-9. [PubMed: 21234261].

67. Tyagi P, Chancellor M, Yoshimura N, Huang L. Activity of different phospholipids in attenuating hyperactivity in bladder irritation. BJU Int. 2008;101(5):627-32. [PubMed: 18070198]. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2007.07334.x PMid:18070198

68. Nirmal J, Tyagi P, Chancellor MB, Kaufman J, Anthony M, Chancellor DD, et al. Development of potential orphan drug therapy of intravesical liposomal tacrolimus for hemorrhagic cystitis due to increased local drug exposure. J Urol. 2013;189(4):1553-8. [PubMed: 23127767]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2012.10.123 PMid:23127767

69. Shao Y, Shen ZJ, Rui WB, Zhou WL. Intravesical instillation of hyaluronic acid prolonged the effect of bladder hydrodistention in patients with severe interstitial cystitis. Urology. 2010;75(3):547-50. [PubMed: 20022087]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2009.09.078 PMid:20022087

70. Lv YS, Zhou HL, Mao HP, Gao R, Wang YD, Xue XY. Intravesical hyaluronic acid and alkalinized lidocaine for the treatment of severe painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis. Int Urogynecol J. 2012;23(12):1715-20. [PubMed: 22576327]. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00192-012-1802-3 PMid:22576327

71. Giberti C, Gallo F, Cortese P, Schenone M. Combined intravesical sodium hyaluronate/chondroitin sulfate therapy for interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome: a prospective study. Ther Adv Urol. 2013;5(4):175-9. [PubMed: 23904856]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1756287213490052 PMid:23904856 PMCid:PMC3721440

72. Song M, Lim J, Yu HY, Park J, Chun JY, Jeong J, et al. Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy Alleviates Interstitial Cystitis by Activating Wnt Signaling Pathway. Stem Cells Dev. 2015;24(14):1648-57. [PubMed: 25745847]. https://doi.org/10.1089/scd.2014.0459 PMid:25745847 PMCid:PMC4499842

73. Zhang J, Planey SL, Ceballos C, Stevens SJ, Keay SK, Zacharias DA. Identification of CKAP4/p63 as a major substrate of the palmitoyl acyltransferase DHHC2, a putative tumor suppressor, using a novel proteomics method. Mol Cell Proteomics. 2008;7(7):1378-88. [PubMed: 18296695]. https://doi.org/10.1074/mcp.M800069-MCP200 PMid:18296695 PMCid:PMC2493380

74. Yang W, Chung YG, Kim Y, Kim TK, Keay SK, Zhang CO, et al. Quantitative proteomics identifies a beta-catenin network as an element of the signaling response to Frizzled-8 protein-related antiproliferative factor. Mol Cell Proteomics. 2011;10(6):M110 007492. [PubMed: 21422242]. https://doi.org/10.1074/mcp.M110.007492 PMid:21422242 PMCid:PMC3108841

75. Shahjee HM, Koch KR, Guo L, Zhang CO, Keay SK. Antiproliferative factor decreases Akt phosphorylation and alters gene expression via CKAP4 in T24 bladder carcinoma cells. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2010;29:160.. [PubMed: 21143984]. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-9966-29-160 PMid:21143984 PMCid:PMC3020166

76. Tao YX, Heit M, Lei ZM, Rao CV. The urinary bladder of a woman is a novel site of luteinizing hormone-human chorionic gonadotropin receptor gene expression. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;179(4):1026-31. [PubMed: 9790392]. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(98)70222-4 PMid:9790392

77. Rao CV. Therapeutic Potential of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Against Painful Bladder Syndrome/Interstitial Cystitis. Reprod Sci. 2016;23(11):1451-8. [PubMed: 27004802]. https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719116639139 PMid:27004802

78. Barthelmes J, Perera G, Hombach J, Dunnhaupt S, Bernkop-Schnurch A. Development of a mucoadhesive nanoparticulate drug delivery system for a targeted drug release in the bladder. Int J Pharm. 2011;416(1):339-45. [PubMed: 21726619] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.06.033 PMid:21726619

Razavi International Journal of Medicine

Reviewing Interstitial Cystitis Models and Treatments: A Focus on the Urothelium

References

Volume 5, Issue 4
October 2017

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics

Reviewing Interstitial Cystitis Models and Treatments: A Focus on the Urothelium

References

Volume 5, Issue 4October 2017

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics

Volume 5, Issue 4
October 2017