Authors
1 Consultant Pathologist/Toxicologist, Berkeley, California, USA
2 Department of Health Sciences, Forensic Toxicology Division, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
Abstract
Keywords
Open Access Policy: This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
1. Hoendermis ES. Pulmonary arterial hypertension: an update. Neth Heart J. 2011;19(12):514-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12471-011-0222-1 PMid:22083429 PMCid:PMC3221752 |
||||
2. Colvin KL, Yeager ME. Animal Models of Pulmonary Hypertension: Matching Disease Mechanisms to Etiology of the Human Disease. J Pulm Respir Med. 2014;4(4) | ||||
3. Ryan J, Dasgupta A, Huston J, Chen KH, Archer SL. Mitochondrial dynamics in pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Mol Med (Berl). 2015;93(3):229-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00109-015-1263-5 PMid:25672499 PMCid:PMC4339102 |
||||
4. Liou CM, Tsai SC, Kuo CH, Williams T, Ting H, Lee SD. Chronic methamphetamine exposure induces cardiac fas-dependent and mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2014;14(2):134-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12012-013-9237-8 PMid:24307234 |
||||
5. Barbosa DJ, Serrat R, Mirra S, Quevedo M, de Barreda EG, Avila J, et al. The mixture of "ecstasy" and its metabolites impairs mitochondrial fusion/fission equilibrium and trafficking in hippocampal neurons, at in vivo relevant concentrations. Toxicol Sci. 2014;139(2):407-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfu042 PMid:24595818 |
||||
6. Collazos J, Martinez E, Fernandez A, Mayo J. Acute, reversible pulmonary hypertension associated with cocaine use. Respir Med. 1996;90(3):171-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-6111(96)90160-2 PMid:8736210 |
||||
7. Yakel DJ, Eisenberg MJ. Pulmonary artery hypertension in chronic intravenous cocaine users. Am Heart J. 1995;130(2):398-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-8703(95)90459-X PMid:7631626 |
||||
8. Cogswell R, Kobashigawa E, McGlothlin D, Shaw R, De Marco T. Validation of the Registry to Evaluate Early and Long-Term Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Disease Management (REVEAL) pulmonary hypertension prediction model in a unique population and utility in the prediction of long-term survival. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2012;31(11):1165-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2012.08.009 PMid:23062726 |
||||
9. Galie N, Hoeper MM, Humbert M, Torbicki A, Vachiery JL, Barbera JA, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS), endorsed by the International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT). Eur Heart J. 2009;30(20):2493-537. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehp297 PMid:19713419 |
||||
10. Rothman RB, Ayestas MA, Dersch CM, Baumann MH. Aminorex, fenfluramine, and chlorphentermine are serotonin transporter substrates. Implications for primary pulmonary hypertension. Circulation. 1999;100(8):869-75. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.100.8.869 PMid:10458725 |
||||
11. Ho EN, Leung DK, Leung GN, Wan TS, Wong AS, Wong CH, et al. Aminorex and rexamino as metabolites of levamisole in the horse. Anal Chim Acta. 2009;638(1):58-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2009.02.033 PMid:19298880 |
||||
12. Gaine SP, Rubin LJ, Kmetzo JJ, Palevsky HI, Traill TA. Recreational use of aminorex and pulmonary hypertension. Chest. 2000;118(5):1496-7. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.118.5.1496 PMid:11083709 |
||||
13. Karch SB, Mari F, Bartolini V, Bertol E. Aminorex poisoning in cocaine abusers. Int J Cardiol. 2012;158(3):344-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2011.06.105 PMid:21764154 |
||||
14. van Riel AC, Schuuring MJ, van Hessen ID, Zwinderman AH, Cozijnsen L, Reichert CL, et al. Contemporary prevalence of pulmonary arterial hypertension in adult congenital heart disease following the updated clinical classification. Int J Cardiol. 2014;174(2):299-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.04.072 PMid:24794056 |
||||
15. Hess C, Ritke N, Broecker S, Madea B, Musshoff F. Metabolism of levamisole and kinetics of levamisole and aminorex in urine by means of LC-QTOF-HRMS and LC-QqQ-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2013;405(12):4077-88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-013-6829-x PMid:23436169 |
||||
16. Karch SB, Defraia B, Messerini L, Mari F, Vaiano F, Bertol E. Aminorex associated with possible idiopathic pulmonary hypertension in a cocaine user. Forensic Sci Int. 2014;240:e7-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.03.028 PMid:24794740 |
||||
17. Anon LO. National Early Warning System of the Council of Ministers of Italy. 2009. | ||||
18. Casale J, Corbeil E, Hays P. Identification of Levamisole Impurities Found in Illicit Cocaine Exhibits Microgram. 2006;6(3-4):2. | ||||
19. Bertucci C, Tedesco D, Fabini E, Di Pietra AM, Rossi F, Garagnani M, et al. Determination of levamisole and tetramisole in seized cocaine samples by enantioselective high-performance liquid chromatography and circular dichroism detection. J Chromatogr A. 2014;1363:150-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2014.07.069 PMid:25124228 |
||||
20. Lapachinske SF, Okai GG, dos Santos A, de Bairros AV, Yonamine M. Analysis of cocaine and its adulterants in drugs for international trafficking seized by the Brazilian Federal Police. Forensic Sci Int. 2015;247:48-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.11.028 PMid:25544694 |
||||
21. US Department of Justice. National Drug Threat Assessment: 2010. Washington, DC: National Drug Intelligence Center; 2010. | ||||
22. Raymon LP, Isenschmid DS. Letter to the editor: The possible role of levamisole in illicit cocaine preparations. J Anal Toxicol. 2009;33(9):620-2. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/33.9.620 PMid:20040138 |
||||
23. Hofmaier T, Luf A, Seddik A, Stockner T, Holy M, Freissmuth M, et al. Aminorex, a metabolite of the cocaine adulterant levamisole, exerts amphetamine like actions at monoamine transporters. Neurochem Int. 2014;73:32-41. Karch SB et al. Razavi Int J Med. 2015;3(3):e28277 7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2013.11.010 PMid:24296074 PMCid:PMC4077236 |
||||
24. Picazo ML, Martinez Ara J, Diaz C, Perez-Mies B. [Nephropathy with occlusive intracapillary IgA thrombi and necrotizing vasculitis, manifesting as rapidly progressive renal insufficiency]. Nefrologia. 2003;23(1):27-36. | ||||
25. Buchanan JA, Vogel JA, Eberhardt AM. Levamisole-induced occlusive necrotizing vasculitis of the ears after use of cocaine contaminated with levamisole. J Med Toxicol. 2011;7(1):83-4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-010-0097-3 PMid:20549422 PMCid:PMC3614109 |
||||
26. Buchanan JA, Oyer RJ, Patel NR, Jacquet GA, Bornikova L, Thienelt C, et al. A confirmed case of agranulocytosis after use of cocaine contaminated with levamisole. J Med Toxicol. 2010 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-010-0060-3 PMid:20358411 PMCid:PMC3550277 |
||||
6(2):160-4. 27. Kew MC. Aminorex fumarate: a double-blind trial and examination for signs of pulmonary arterial hypertension. S Afr Med J. 1970;44(14):421-3. | ||||
27. Follath F, Burkart F, Schweizer W. Drug-induced pulmonary hypertension? BMJ. 1971;1(5743):265-6. 29. Blaho K, Logan B, Winbery S, Park L, Schwilke E. Blood cocaine and metabolite concentrations, clinical findings, and outcome of patients presenting to an ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2000;18(5):593-8. https://doi.org/10.1053/ajem.2000.9282 PMid:10999576 |
||||
28. Shimoda LA, Laurie SS. Vascular remodeling in pulmonary hypertension. J Mol Med (Berl). 2013;91(3):297-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00109-013-0998-0 PMid:23334338 PMCid:PMC3584237 |
||||
29. Herve P, Humbert M, Sitbon O, Parent F, Nunes H, Legal C, et al. Pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension. The role of platelets and thrombosis. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22(3):451-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70283-5 PMid:11590840 |
||||
30. Shannon R, Chaudhry M. Effect of alpha1-adrenergic receptors in cardiac pathophysiology. Am Heart J. 2006;152(5):842-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2006.05.017 PMid:17070143 |
||||
31. Grant JS, White K, MacLean MR, Baker AH. MicroRNAs in pulmonary arterial remodeling. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2013;70(23):4479-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-013-1382-5 PMid:23739951 PMCid:PMC3827895 |
||||
32. Friedman RC, Burge CB. MicroRNA target finding by comparative genomics. Methods Mol Biol. 2014;1097:457-76. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-709-9_21 PMid:24639172 |
||||
33. Gurtner HP. Pulmonary hypertension, "plexogenic pulmonary arteriopathy" and the appetite depressant drug aminorex: post or propter? Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir. 1979;15(5):897-923. | ||||
34. Rivier JL. [Primary arterial pulmonary hypertension. Preliminary statistical results under the sponsorship of the Swiss Cardiological Society and with the aid the Swiss Foundation f Cardiology]. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1970;100(4):143-5. | ||||
35. Hess C, Ritke N, Sydow K, Mehling LM, Ruehs H, Madea B, et al. Determination of levamisole, aminorex, and pemoline in plasma by means of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and application to a pharmacokinetic study of levamisole. Drug Test Anal. 2014;6(10):1049-54. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.1619 PMid:24574157 |